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When you start to look at the history of life on Earth, it quickly becomes apparent that humans have only been around for a relative blink of an eye. For bees, it’s a different story. Here is one version of the story of the evolution of honey bees and humans.
Evolutionary Divergence of Bees from Wasps
Bees are believed to have evolved from wasp ancestors during the early to mid-Cretaceous period, approximately 100 to 120 million years ago. The ancestral wasps were likely similar to modern-day Crabronid wasps, which are solitary hunters feeding on other insects. Back then, our planet was experiencing a ‘greenhouse climate’, with high temperatures, high seas, and no polar ice caps. The super continent Pangea had already broken up into smaller land masses, which were inching their way towards the configuration of continents and oceans that we are familiar with. However, it was quite unfamiliar; Africa and South America had only just separated, Australia was still attached to Antartica, and India was down near South Africa. Much of what is now Europe was underwater.
This was the time when flowering plants emerged and proliferated. Some insects shifted their diets from carnivorous to herbivorous, and so began the co-evolution of insects with flowering plants. Insects ate the pollen and nectar provided by the flowers and, in turn, the flowers benefitted from pollination by insects. Early bees, which branched away from their wasp ancestors, adapted certain bodily features to help exploit the floral banquet on offer. This included plumose (branched) body hairs to trap pollen grains, and ‘pollen baskets’ on their legs.
Emergence of Honey Bees
Bees developed a range of nesting behaviours, from burrowing in the ground to using hollow plant stems or creating wax combs. While many bees remained solitary, some lineages began exhibiting social behaviours, leading to communal living and cooperative brood care. The most advanced form of social behaviour, eusociality, involves a division of labor, overlapping generations, and cooperative care of young. This is seen in honey bees and some other bee species. Honey bees likely originated around 20 to 30 million years ago during the Miocene Epoch in Southeast Asia. Some people get very excited about whether or not this was the case, but I’m not sure if it matters; they emerged, evolved, and spread across the majority of the planet.
Honey bees developed highly organised colonies with a single reproductive queen, sterile female workers, and male drones. The evolution of sophisticated communication methods, such as the waggle dance, allowed honey bees to efficiently exploit food resources. Their ability to produce and store honey enabled colonies to survive periods when flowers were not blooming.
This was all going on at a time of global cooling. The polar ice caps formed, sea levels dropped, and bridges between land masses opened up. Grasslands and forests began to appear, and mammals were beginning to diversify and spread. Early horses and elephants had arrived, and apes came along at about the same time as honey bees. Humans, of course, were nowhere to be seen.
Honey Bees Continued to Evolve
A lot can happen in 30 million years. The genus Apis diversified into several species adapted to various climates and habitats. Notable early species include:
- Apis dorsata (Giant Honey Bee) – Known for nesting in open areas on large combs.
- Apis florea (Dwarf Honey Bee) – Smaller bees nesting in shrubs and small trees.
- Apis cerana (Eastern Honey Bee) – Adapted to forested environments in Asia.
Honey bees spread from Southeast Asia to other parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe. Apis mellifera (Western Honey Bee) evolved in Africa and expanded into Europe and the Middle East. Geographic isolation led to the development of numerous subspecies of Apis mellifera, each adapted to local environmental conditions (e.g., A. m. ligustica in Italy, A. m. carnica in the Balkans).
Some adaptations included thermoregulation (Improved ability to regulate hive temperature in varying climates), foraging behaviour (adaptations in foraging times and flower preferences based on local flora), and disease resistance (natural selection led to varying levels of resistance to local pests and diseases).
What About Humans?
The evolutionary journey of modern humans (Homo sapiens) began with a common ancestor shared with chimpanzees approximately 6 to 8 million years ago. This complex process involved numerous hominin species, environmental changes, and adaptive developments that collectively shaped the course of human evolution. This last common ancestor lived in Africa and probably exhibited a combination of both tree and land dwelling behaviours.
If there is one thing that humans like to study, it’s themselves. Consequently, the story of our evolution, although not perfect, is quite well understood, and goes something like this:
Early Hominins
Sahelanthropus tchadensis (7 Million Years Ago)
• Found in Chad, Central Africa, in 2001.
• One of the oldest-known hominins.
• Features a mix of ape-like and human-like characteristics.
• Skull Anatomy: Small brain-case but with a relatively flat face and reduced canine teeth.
• Bipedalism: Possible evidence of upright walking inferred from the position of the foramen magnum (the hole in the skull where the spinal cord enters).
Orrorin tugenensis (6 Million Years Ago)
• Unearthed in Kenya in 2000.
• Femur bones suggest bipedal locomotion.
• Dental features indicate a diet of hard plant material.
Ardipithecus kadabba and Ardipithecus ramidus (5.8 – 4.4 Million Years Ago)
• Found in Ethiopia in the 1990s and early 2000s.
• Combines tree-climbing adaptations with features suitable for walking upright.
• Lived in woodland habitats, challenging previous notions that bipedalism evolved in open savannah.
Australopithecines
Australopithecus anamensis (4.2 – 3.9 Million Years Ago)
• Found in Kenya and Ethiopia.
• Exhibits both ape-like and human-like features.
• Bipedal locomotion, with some primitive traits in teeth and jaws.
Australopithecus afarensis (3.9 – 2.9 Million Years Ago)
• Famous for the “Lucy” skeleton found in Ethiopia in 1974.
• Well-documented species providing extensive information on early hominins.
• Bipedal but with long arms suitable for climbing.
• Brain size larger than earlier hominins but smaller than modern humans.
• Lived in diverse environments, from forests to grasslands.
Australopithecus africanus (3.3 – 2.1 Million Years Ago)
• First discovered in South Africa in 1924 (the “Taung Child”).
• Exhibits more human-like cranial features.
• Rounded skull, smaller teeth, and a pelvis adapted for bipedalism.
Paranthropus Species (Robust Australopithecines)
• Time Period: (2.7 – 1.2 Million Years Ago)
• Species: Includes Paranthropus aethiopicus, Paranthropus boisei, and Paranthropus robustus.
• Robust skulls with large jaws and teeth adapted for heavy chewing.
• Specialised in consuming tough, fibrous plant materials.
• Represent a side branch in human evolution with no direct descendants among modern humans.
Early Homo Species
Homo habilis (2.4 – 1.4 Million Years Ago)
• Found in Tanzania in 1960.
• the name means “handy man,” reflecting association with stone tools.
• Larger brain-case (average ~610 cm³) compared to australopithecines.
• Smaller face and teeth.
• Use of Oldowan stone tools, the earliest known stone tool industry.
• Scavenging and foraging lifestyle.
Homo rudolfensis (2.4 – 1.8 Million Years Ago)
• Found in Kenya near Lake Turkana.
• Debated classification; some consider it a variant of Homo habilis.
• Larger brain-case and body size.
• Differences in facial structure from H. habilis.
Homo erectus (1.89 Million – 110,000 Years Ago)
• First discovered in Java, Indonesia, in the 1890s (“Java Man”).
• First hominin species to have human-like body proportions.
• Larger brain size (average ~900 cm³).
• Elongated legs and shorter arms, indicating fully terrestrial life.
• Use of Acheulean stone tools (hand axes).
• Controlled use of fire (evidence dating back to ~1 million years ago).
• First hominin to migrate out of Africa into Asia and Europe.
Middle Pleistocene Homo Species
Homo heidelbergensis (700,000 – 200,000 Years Ago)
• Identified from a mandible found in Heidelberg, Germany.
• Likely ancestor of both Neanderthals and modern humans.
• Larger brain size (average ~1,200 cm³).
• Robust build, with features intermediate between H. erectus and later species.
• Built shelters and hunted large animals.
• Possible use of rudimentary language.
Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthals) (400,000 – 40,000 Years Ago)
• First identified in the Neander Valley, Germany, in 1856.
• Lived in Europe and parts of Western Asia.
• Stocky build adapted to cold climates.
• Large brain size (average ~1,500 cm³), slightly larger than modern humans.
• Use of Mousterian stone tools.
• Controlled use of fire and construction of shelters.
• Evidence of symbolic behaviour, burial practices, and possibly art.
• Genetic evidence shows interbreeding with Homo sapiens.
• Non-African modern human populations carry 1-2% Neanderthal DNA.
Denisovans (400,000 – 30,000 Years Ago)
• Identified from DNA analysis of a finger bone found in Denisova Cave, Siberia.
• A distinct group closely related to Neanderthals.
• Contributed genetic material to modern Melanesian and Southeast Asian populations.
Homo sapiens (Modern Humans)
Early Anatomically Modern Humans (300,000 Years Ago to Present)
• Oldest-known fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, dated to ~300,000 years ago.
• High forehead, reduced brow ridges, and a pronounced chin.
• Brain size averages ~1,350 cm³.
Behavioural Modernity (70,000 Years Ago Onwards)
• Advanced tools (blades, composite tools).
• Artwork, cave paintings, and carvings (e.g., in Europe and Africa).
• Development of language and symbolic thought.
• Migration Out of Africa – Initial dispersal around 70,000 – 50,000 years ago.
• Reached Australia by ~65,000 years ago.
• Entered Europe by ~45,000 years ago.
• Peopling of the Americas by ~15,000 years ago via the Bering Land Bridge.
Interactions with Other Hominins
• Neanderthals and Denisovans – Interbreeding events contributed to genetic diversity.
• Inherited genes affecting immunity, skin color, and high-altitude adaptation.
From Hunter Gatherers to Farmers
The gathering of honey by early hunter-gatherer humans is well-supported by archaeological findings, anthropological studies, and the enduring presence of honey hunting in modern indigenous cultures. Honey provided a valuable food resource rich in energy and nutrients, playing a significant role in the diet and culture of early humans. One of the most compelling pieces of evidence comes from the Cuevas de la Araña (Spider Caves) near Bicorp, Spain. A cave painting estimated to be around 8,000 years old depicts a human figure climbing to extract honey from a wild beehive, surrounded by bees. This Mesolithic-era artwork illustrates the significance of honey gathering in prehistoric times.
From around 12,000 years ago humans moved from being hunter-gatherers to farmers. This meant the establishment of larger and more permanent settlements, domestication of livestock, and cultivation of crops for food. Evidence from Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia shows early attempts at beekeeping using simple hives, so this is where we find the convergence between the relatively ancient honey bees and modern humans. Keeping bees is an old and deeply ingrained human activity; it connects us to distant times, when we were still us, but our world was entirely different.
Humans and Bees
Domesticated bees were transported along trade routes, introducing them to new regions. Selective breeding inevitably came along. Humans began selecting bees for desirable traits such as docility, honey production, and disease resistance. European settlers introduced Apis mellifera to the Americas, Australia, and other regions where honey bees were not native.
While it is tempting to paint human activity in negative ways, I don’t think it’s all bad. In the same way that we selectively bred and domesticated other animals, such as horses, dogs, and cattle, we have made an impact on honey bees too. Nobody asked the bees if they wanted this, and they would not have understood the reply had there been one, but the majority of honey bees alive today now reside in man-made hives. They are extremely widespread around the planet and are intrinsically linked to modern agriculture. Managed bees play a vital role in agriculture and the global food supply chain. Wild honey bees, though fewer in number and facing various threats, remain important for biodiversity and the health of natural ecosystems.
On the downside, we have brought parasites and diseases into contact with honey bees, and therefore have a responsibility to ensure that we are good custodians of our stock. Humans are always meddling, and other species either win or lose. Given our long and mutually beneficial relationship with honey bees, I hope the relationship continues, and that we respect the animals in our care.